Citizenship by descent offers individuals the opportunity to claim citizenship from countries where their ancestors were born or held citizenship. This legal pathway, based on the principle of jus sanguinis (right of blood), has helped millions of people worldwide reconnect with their heritage while gaining valuable citizenship benefits including travel freedom, work opportunities, and cultural connections.
In 2025, several countries continue to offer robust citizenship by descent programs, each with distinct requirements, processes, and advantages. This comprehensive guide examines the programs available through Italy, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, France, and South Africa, providing essential information for anyone considering this path to dual citizenship.
What Is Citizenship by Descent?
Citizenship by descent allows individuals to claim citizenship based on their ancestral lineage rather than their place of birth or current residence. This concept recognizes that citizenship can be transmitted through family bloodlines across generations, enabling people to reconnect with their ancestral homelands regardless of where they were born.
The process typically involves proving an unbroken chain of citizenship from an ancestor to yourself through official documentation such as birth certificates, marriage records, and naturalization documents. Each country has established specific requirements regarding how many generations back you can claim citizenship, what documentation is required, and whether additional conditions like language proficiency or cultural connection must be demonstrated.
Understanding citizenship by descent requires recognizing that it’s fundamentally different from naturalization through residency or marriage. While those processes require you to develop new connections to a country, citizenship by descent acknowledges connections that already exist through your family history.
Recent Changes in Italian Citizenship Law
Italy updated its citizenship by descent regulations in March 2025, implementing new requirements that affect eligibility for the program. Under the current Italian law, individuals can claim Italian citizenship by descent if they have an Italian parent or grandparent who was born in Italy, or if they have an Italian parent who resided in Italy for at least two consecutive years prior to the applicant’s birth.
These changes represent a shift from Italy’s previous approach, which allowed claims through more distant ancestors. The new regulations apply to applications submitted after March 28, 2025, while applications that were properly filed before this date continue to be processed under the previous requirements.
Italian citizenship by descent remains valuable for those who qualify, providing EU citizenship benefits including the right to live, work, and travel throughout the European Union. The process can be completed through Italian consulates worldwide or, in certain complex cases, through Italian courts.
Italy also maintains special provisions for specific situations, such as the “1948 cases” which address citizenship claims through the maternal line before women could transmit citizenship under Italian law. These cases require judicial proceedings but offer pathways for families who might not qualify through standard administrative processes.
Portuguese Citizenship by Descent: Stable and Accessible
Portugal offers one of the most straightforward citizenship by descent programs in Europe, with clear requirements and reasonable processing times. Portuguese citizenship can be claimed by children and grandchildren of Portuguese citizens, provided certain conditions are met.
For individuals with Portuguese parents, the process is typically straightforward, requiring basic documentation to prove the parent-child relationship and the parent’s Portuguese citizenship status. Those claiming citizenship through Portuguese grandparents must demonstrate an “effective connection” to the Portuguese community, which can be shown through various means including language proficiency, cultural participation, or maintained family traditions.
Portugal requires applicants to demonstrate A2 level Portuguese language proficiency, which represents basic conversational ability. This requirement acknowledges the importance of cultural integration while remaining achievable for most dedicated applicants. Several language learning resources and testing options are available to help applicants meet this standard.
The Portuguese program also includes special provisions for descendants of Sephardic Jews who were expelled from Portugal centuries ago. This historical justice initiative allows qualifying individuals to reclaim Portuguese citizenship as recognition of past injustices and contributions to Portuguese society.
Processing times for Portuguese citizenship applications typically range from 12 to 24 months, making it one of the more efficient European programs. Portuguese consulates worldwide generally maintain organized systems and provide clear guidance to applicants throughout the process.
Romanian Citizenship: EU Access with Generous Terms
Romania offers an accessible pathway to EU citizenship through its citizenship by descent program, which has become particularly valuable following Romania’s full integration into the Schengen Area in 2025. This integration means Romanian citizens now enjoy unrestricted travel throughout the Schengen Zone, significantly enhancing the practical benefits of Romanian citizenship.
Romanian citizenship by descent is available to descendants of Romanian citizens, with eligibility extending to great-grandparents in many cases. The program recognizes the complex history of Central and Eastern Europe, including territorial changes and political upheavals that scattered Romanian families across multiple countries throughout the 20th century.
Particularly interesting aspects of the Romanian program include provisions for individuals born in territories that were part of “Greater Romania” between 1918 and 1940. This historical period included regions now part of Moldova, Ukraine, and other neighboring countries, creating eligibility opportunities for families who may not have initially considered Romanian citizenship.
Romania also maintains special provisions for Holocaust survivors and their descendants, recognizing the unique circumstances that led to displacement and citizenship loss during World War II. These provisions demonstrate Romania’s commitment to historical justice while providing practical pathways to citizenship recovery.
The Romanian application process emphasizes documentation of ancestry and citizenship transmission rather than cultural integration requirements. Most applicants are not required to demonstrate Romanian language proficiency or pass cultural knowledge tests, making the program accessible to diaspora communities worldwide.
Slovak Citizenship: Opportunities for Czechoslovak Descendants
Slovakia launched its citizenship by descent program in 2022, creating new opportunities for descendants of Slovak and Czechoslovak citizens. This relatively new program reflects Slovakia’s desire to reconnect with diaspora communities while recognizing the historical complexities of Central European political evolution.
Slovak citizenship by descent is available to individuals who can prove descent from Slovak or Czechoslovak citizens, with eligibility extending to great-grandparents in many cases. This generational reach makes the program accessible to families whose Slovak connections may date back several generations.
One unique aspect of the Slovak program is its administrative residence permit requirement. Applicants must obtain a temporary residence permit in Slovakia during the application process, but this doesn’t require permanent relocation or abandoning residence in other countries. This administrative approach allows Slovakia to maintain legal oversight while accommodating the realities of modern global mobility.
The Slovak program processes applications relatively efficiently, typically completing cases within 12 to 18 months including the residence permit phase. Slovak authorities have worked to streamline procedures and provide clear guidance to applicants, recognizing that many potential citizens live far from Slovakia and may be unfamiliar with Slovak administrative systems.
Slovakia’s EU membership means that Slovak citizenship provides full European Union benefits, including the right to live and work throughout the EU. For families with Czechoslovak heritage, Slovak citizenship often represents the most accessible pathway to European citizenship and the opportunities it provides.
French Citizenship by Descent: Selective but Valuable
France maintains a more restrictive approach to citizenship by descent compared to other European countries, generally limiting eligibility to direct children of French citizens. However, French citizenship carries significant value and provides access to one of the world’s most powerful passports.
French citizenship by descent typically requires a direct parent-child relationship with a French citizen, making eligibility less common than in countries with more generous generational limits. However, France does recognize certain special circumstances and historical situations that may create eligibility for some individuals with more distant French connections.
The concept of “possession d’état” in French citizenship law allows for consideration of individuals who have lived as though they were French citizens, even without formal documentation. This principle can apply to families who maintained strong French cultural connections, spoke French at home, or participated actively in French communities abroad.
France emphasizes cultural integration and genuine connection to French society in its citizenship evaluations. Applicants must demonstrate French language proficiency and knowledge of French culture and values. While this creates additional requirements, it also ensures that French citizenship by descent represents meaningful connection rather than mere administrative convenience.
The French application process typically takes 18 to 24 months, reflecting the thorough evaluation that French authorities conduct for each case. French consulates worldwide maintain high standards for documentation and cultural assessment, but provide support and guidance to qualified applicants throughout the process.
South African Citizenship: Commonwealth Connections
South African citizenship by descent offers unique advantages through the country’s Commonwealth membership and established international relationships. South Africa’s citizenship laws accommodate dual nationality arrangements, making it possible to maintain South African citizenship alongside other nationalities.
South African citizenship by descent is generally available to individuals with South African parents, requiring documentation to prove the parent-child relationship and the parent’s South African citizenship status. The program operates with straightforward requirements focused on proving ancestral connections rather than complex cultural or linguistic evaluations.
One advantage of South African citizenship is the country’s recognition of dual citizenship arrangements. South African authorities understand that diaspora communities maintain connections to multiple countries and have established procedures to accommodate these relationships while preserving South African citizenship rights.
Processing times for South African citizenship applications are typically shorter than European alternatives, often completing within 6 to 12 months. South African consulates and diplomatic missions worldwide generally maintain efficient processing systems and provide clear guidance to applicants.
South African citizenship also provides access to certain Commonwealth privileges and reciprocal agreements that can be valuable for travel, education, and business opportunities. These historical connections create advantages that complement other citizenship options families might consider.
Documentation Requirements and Challenges
Successfully applying for citizenship by descent requires careful attention to documentation requirements, which vary significantly between countries but generally include basic genealogical proof and supporting evidence of citizenship transmission.
Universal documentation typically includes birth certificates for yourself, your parents, and relevant grandparents or great-grandparents, along with marriage certificates for ancestral couples and death certificates where applicable. Most countries require these documents to be officially authenticated through apostille certification and professionally translated if not in the destination country’s official language.
Each country maintains specific documentation standards that reflect their particular legal systems and historical experiences. Italian applications often require extensive proof that ancestors maintained Italian citizenship throughout their lives, including evidence that they never naturalized in other countries. Portuguese applications emphasize language proficiency documentation alongside genealogical proof. Romanian applications may require territorial documentation for claims involving historical boundary changes.
Common challenges include locating historical documents, especially for families affected by wars, natural disasters, or political upheavals that destroyed official records. Professional genealogical research services can often locate alternative documentation sources or identify exemption pathways for specific circumstances.
Another frequent challenge involves understanding complex family histories, particularly when ancestors moved between countries, changed names, or lived through periods of political change. Professional legal assistance can help families navigate these complexities and present their histories in ways that satisfy legal requirements.
Processing Times and Realistic Expectations
Understanding realistic processing times helps families plan appropriately and manage expectations throughout the citizenship application process. Processing times vary significantly between countries and depend on factors including application complexity, consulate workload, and documentation completeness.
Italian citizenship applications currently experience longer processing times due to high demand and recent administrative changes. Consulate appointments may require wait times of several years in major cities, while court proceedings for complex cases typically take 12 to 18 months once filed.
Portuguese citizenship applications generally process within 12 to 24 months through Portuguese consulates worldwide. The Portuguese system maintains relatively consistent timelines and provides regular updates to applicants throughout the process.
Romanian citizenship applications typically require 18 to 36 months for completion, with processing times varying based on case complexity and documentation availability. Historical territorial claims or Holocaust-related applications may require additional research and evaluation time.
Slovak citizenship applications, including the residence permit phase, typically complete within 12 to 18 months. The newer Slovak system has maintained efficient processing standards while accommodating the unique requirements of diaspora applicants.
French citizenship applications usually require 18 to 24 months, reflecting the thorough cultural and linguistic evaluation that French authorities conduct. The French system prioritizes comprehensive assessment over rapid processing.
South African citizenship applications often complete within 6 to 12 months, making them among the fastest international options available to qualified applicants.
The Value of Professional Assistance
Given the complexity of modern citizenship by descent applications, many families benefit from professional legal assistance throughout the process. Experienced immigration attorneys can provide valuable services including eligibility assessment, documentation guidance, application preparation, and ongoing case management.
Harvey Law Group specializes in citizenship by descent applications across multiple countries, providing comprehensive services that help families navigate complex international requirements. Their multi-country expertise allows for strategic planning that considers various citizenship options and optimizes timing for families with multiple ancestral connections.
Professional assistance becomes particularly valuable for complex cases involving missing documentation, unusual family histories, or potential legal challenges. Experienced attorneys can identify alternative pathways, coordinate with government authorities, and ensure that applications receive proper presentation and consideration.
Document recovery and authentication services represent another area where professional assistance provides significant value. Professional genealogical researchers often have access to specialized databases and historical records that families cannot locate independently.
Conclusion: Planning Your Citizenship Journey
Citizenship by descent offers valuable opportunities for millions of people worldwide to reconnect with their ancestral heritage while gaining practical benefits including travel freedom, work opportunities, and cultural connections. Each country’s program reflects unique historical experiences and national priorities, creating diverse options for families with international ancestry.
Success in citizenship by descent applications requires careful planning, thorough documentation, and realistic expectations about processing times and requirements. While the process can be complex, the benefits of dual citizenship often justify the investment of time and resources required for successful applications.
Understanding your options and requirements early in the process allows for better planning and preparation. Whether pursuing Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, French, or South African citizenship, thorough research and professional guidance can significantly improve your chances of success.
Harvey Law Group stands ready to help families evaluate their citizenship options and navigate the application process successfully. With experience across multiple citizenship programs and a commitment to personalized service, they provide the expertise necessary to transform ancestral connections into valuable citizenship benefits.
